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15 hours ago · Windsor Castle was originally built by William the Conqueror in the decade after the Norman conquest of 1066. [73] William established a defensive ring of motte and bailey castles around London; each was a day's march – about 20 miles (32 km) – from the City and from the next castle, allowing for easy reinforcements in a crisis. [73]
15 hours ago · President William Tubman encouraged economic and political changes that heightened the country's prosperity and international profile; Liberia was a founding member of the League of Nations, United Nations, and the Organisation of African Unity. The Americo-Liberian settlers did not relate well to the indigenous peoples they encountered.
15 hours ago · The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc, that started in 1947, two years after the end of World War II, and lasted until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The term cold war is used because there was no large-scale ...
15 hours ago · Charles XIV John (Swedish: Karl XIV Johan; 26 January 1763 – 8 March 1844) was King of Sweden and Norway from 1818 until his death in 1844 and the first monarch of the Bernadotte dynasty. In Norway, he is known as Charles III John (Norwegian: Karl III Johan) and before he became royalty in Sweden, his name was Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte. [1]
- History
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Establishment
From 1496, the Spanish conquered numerous possessions on the North African coast, which had been captured since 1496: Melilla (1496), Mers El Kébir (1505), Oran (1509), Bougie (1510), Tripoli (1510), Algiers, Shershell, Dellys, and Tenes. The Spaniards later led numerous unsuccessful expeditions to take Algiers in the Algiers expedition in 1516, 1519 and another failed expedition in 1541. Around the same time, the Ottoman privateer brothers Oruç and Hayreddin—both known to Europeans as Barbar...
Base in the war against Spain
Hayreddin Barbarossa established the military basis of the regency. The Ottomans provided a supporting garrison of 2,000 Turkish troops with artillery. He left Hasan Agha in command as his deputy when he had to leave for Constantinople in 1533. The son of Barbarossa, Hasan Pashan was in 1544 when his father retired, the first governor of the Regency to be directly appointed by the Ottoman Empire. He took the title of beylerbey. Algiers became a base in the war against Spain, and also in the O...
Mediterranean privateer
Despite the end of formal hostilities with Spain in 1580, attacks on Christian and especially Catholic shipping, with slavery for the captured, became prevalent in Algiers and were actually the main industry and source of revenues of the Regency. In the early 17th century, Algiers also became, along with other North African ports such as Tunis, one of the bases for Anglo-Turkish piracy. There were as many as 8,000 renegades in the city in 1634. (Renegades were former Christians, sometimes fle...
Territorial management
The Regency was composed of various beyliks (provinces) under the authority of beys(vassals): 1. The Beylik of Constantine in the east, with its capital in Constantine 2. The Beylik of Titteri in the Centre, with its capital being Médéa or Mazouna 3. The Beylik of the West, with its capital being Mascara and then Oran Each beylik was divided into outan (counties) with at their head the caïds directly under the bey. To administer the interior of the country, the administration relied on the tr...
Diwan
The Divan of Algiers was started in the 16th century by the Odjak. It was seated in the Jenina Palace. This assembly, initially led by a Janissary Agha would soon go from a way to administer the Odjack to a central part of the country's administration. This change started in the 17th century, and the Diwan became an important part of the state, albeit it was still dominated by the Janissaries. Around 1628 the Divan was expanded to include 2 subdivisions. One called the private (Janissary) Div...
Levy warriors
The levy militia composed from Arab-Berber warriors numbered in the tens of thousands, being overwhelmingly the largest part of the Algerian army. They were called upon from loyal tribes and clans, usually Makhzen ones. They numbered up to 50,000 in the Beylik of Oran alone. The troops were armed with muskets, usually moukahlas, and swords, usually either Nimchas or Flyssas, both of which were traditional local swords. The weaponry wasn't supplied by the state, and instead it was self-supplie...
Odjak of Algiers
The Odjak of Algiers was a faction in the country which encompassed all janissaries. They often also controlled the country, for example during the period of Aghas from 1659 to 1671.They usually formed the main part of the army as one of the only regular unit they possessed. The Odjak was initially mainly composed of foreigners as local tribes were deemed unreliable and their allegiance would often shift. Thus Janissaries were used to patrol rural tribal areas, and to garrison smaller forts i...
Spahis of Algiers
Not much is known about the Spahis of Algiers, other than the fact that they were a regular standing unit, and were mainly composed of locals (although there were Turks amongst them). They differed greatly from the traditional Ottoman Sipahis, in both military equipment, and organization, and hardly had anything in common with them other than their names, and both being cavalry units. The Dey also periodically possessed several thousand spahis in his service acting as a personal guard. Other...
1518-1659
Inbetween 1518 and 1671, the rulers of the Regency were chosen by the Ottoman sultan. During the first few decades, Algiers was completely aligned with the Ottoman Empire, although it later gained a certain level of autonomy as it was the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire, and administering it directly would have been problematic.
1659-1710
During this period a form of Dual leadership was in place, with the Aghas, after 1671 Deys, sharing power and influence with a Pasha appointed by the Ottoman sultan from Constantinople.After 1671, the Deys became the main leaders of the country, although the Pashas still retained some power.
1710-1830
After a coup by Baba Ali Chaouchthe Political situation of Algiers became complicated.
The population of the Regency of Algiers in 1830 has been estimated at between 3 and 5 million, of whom 10,000 were 'Turks' (including people from Kurdish, Greek and Albanian ancestry) and 5,000 Kouloughli civilians (from the Turkish kul oğlu, "son of slaves (Janissaries)", i.e. creole of Turks and local women).By 1830, more than 17,000 Jews were l...
Konstam, Angus (2016). The Barbary Pirates. 15th–17th Centuries. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-1543-9.Pierre Boyer, « Le problème Kouloughli dans la régence d'Alger», Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, vol. 8, no 1, 1970, p. 79-94 (ISSN 0035-1474, DOI 10.3406/remmm.1970.1033)15 hours ago · September 12, 1964 (Saturday) Ralph Boston broke the world record for the long jump, leaping 27 feet, 4 + 1⁄4 inches at the U.S. Olympic team qualifying trials in Los Angeles. Boston's leap was an inch greater than the official mark set by Igor Ter-Ovanesyan of the Soviet Union in 1962.
