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From 1048 to 1257, the papacy experienced increasing conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). Conflict with the latter culminated in the East–West Schism, dividing the Roman and Eastern Churches.
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- Overview
- The early papacy
papacy, the office and jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome, the pope (Latin papa, from Greek pappas, “father”), who presides over the Holy See (the central government) of the Roman Catholic Church. The term pope was originally applied to all the bishops in the West and also used to describe the patriarch of Alexandria, who still retains the title. In 1073, however, Pope Gregory VII restricted its use to the bishop of Rome, confirming a practice that had existed since the 9th century.
According to the Annuario Pontificio, the papal annual, there have been more than 260 popes since St. Peter, traditionally considered the first pope. Among these, 82 have been proclaimed saints, as have some antipopes (rival claimants to the papal throne who were appointed or elected in opposition to the legitimate pope). The Annuario Pontificio does not identify popes by consecutive number, having stated that at times the legitimate succession between multiple claimants was impossible to determine. Most holders of the office have been Roman or Italian, with a sprinkling of other Europeans, including one Pole, and one Latin American pope. All have been male, though the legend of a female Pope Joan appeared in the 13th century. During the course of the 2,000 years in which the papal system and the practice of electing popes in the papal conclave have evolved, the papacy has played a crucial role in both Western and world history. The history of the papacy can be divided into five major periods: the early papacy, from St. Peter through Pelagius II (until 590); the medieval papacy, from St. Gregory I through Boniface VIII (590–1303); the Renaissance and Reformation papacy, from Benedict XI through Pius IV (1303–1565); the early modern papacy, from St. Pius V through Clement XIV (1566–1774); and the modern papacy, from Pius VI (1775–99).
Apart from the allusion to Rome in the First Letter of Peter, there is no historical evidence that St. Peter was Rome’s first bishop or that he was martyred in Rome (according to tradition, he was crucified upside down) during a persecution of the Christians in the mid-60s ce. By the end of the 1st century, however, his presence in the imperial capital was recognized by Christian leaders, and the city was accorded a place of honour, perhaps because of its claim to the graves of both Saints Peter and Paul. In 1939 what were believed to be Peter’s bones were found under the altar of the basilica dedicated to him, and in 1965 Pope Paul VI (1963–78) confirmed them as such. Rome’s primacy was also fostered by its many martyrs, its defense of orthodoxy, and its status as the capital of the Roman Empire. By the end of the 2nd century, Rome’s stature was further bolstered by the Petrine theory, which claimed that Jesus Christ had designated Peter to be his representative on earth and the leader of the church and that this ministry was passed on to Peter’s successors as bishops of Rome. Peter received this authority, according to the theory, when Jesus referred to him as the rock of the church and said to him, “I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven” (Matthew 16:18–19). The Roman position of honour was challenged in the middle of the 3rd century when Pope Stephen I (254–257) and St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, clashed over Stephen’s claim to doctrinal authority over the universal church. Nonetheless, in the critical period between Popes Damasus I (366–384) and Leo I (440–461), nine popes made a strong case for Rome’s supremacy, despite a growing challenge from the see of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Empire.
Leo, one of only two popes accorded the appellation “the Great,” played a pivotal role in the early history of the papacy. Assuming the title pontifex maximus, or chief priest, he made an important distinction between the person of the pope and his office, maintaining that the office assumed the full power bestowed on Peter. Although the Council of Chalcedon—called and largely directed by the Eastern emperor Marcian in 451—accorded the patriarch of Constantinople the same primacy in the East that the bishop of Rome held in the West, it acknowledged that Leo I spoke with the voice of Peter on matters of dogma, thus encouraging papal primacy. The link between Peter and the office of the bishop of Rome was stressed by Pope Gelasius I (492–496), who was the first pope to be referred to as the “vicar of Christ.” In his “theory of the two swords,” Gelasius articulated a dualistic power structure, insisting that the pope embodied spiritual power while the emperor embodied temporal power. This position, which was supported by Pope Pelagius I (556–561), became an important part of medieval ecclesiology and political theory.
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- Frank J. Coppa
History. The Papacy in Rome. After the fall of the Roman Empire and the transfer of the imperial capital to Constantinople, the Pope gained power and became the sole authority in Rome.
The roots of the Papacy can be traced to the early Christian community of Rome. According to tradition, St. Peter, one of Jesus Christ’s apostles, became the first Bishop of Rome. This connection established a foundational precedent for the subsequent primacy of the Roman See.
Unlike any other Christian see, Rome can put at least a name to every bishop in an unbroken line back to the 1st century of the Christian era and to St Peter himself as the first pope. The papacy, though not recognized as such until later centuries, has impressive credentials.
The remarkable, and permanently influential, papal history known as the Liber pontificalis shaped perceptions and the memory of Rome, the popes, and the many-layered past of both city and papacy within western Europe.
May 21, 2024 · Continued papal corruption and the papacy’s absence from Rome gave rise to loud calls for sacramental and organizational reform. As the European world disintegrated into its component national parts, the universalism of the church and the papacy was challenged.
