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Italy - Papal States, Vatican City, Rome: The papacy engaged in often flamboyant political maneuvers, especially during the reign of Julius II (1503–13), and in the architectural and intellectual renewal of Rome. Save for the brief reign of the last non-Italian pope before the 20th century, Adrian VI (reigned 1522–23), the papacy failed to ...
Papal States, Italian Stati Pontifici, Territories of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. The extent of the territory and the degree of papal control varied over the centuries.
Papal States, 756–1870 (the Marches and Umbria), during this period cities include: Perugia and Ferrara. 1500 A.D. 1550 A.D. Independent principality, later duchy, of Massa and Carrara, 15th–19th century. Siena, autonomous, 12th century–1557, then to Florence.
- The Papal States
- Popes and Conciliarism
- Popes and Cardinals
- Popes and Bishops
- The Roman CURIA
- Papal Finances
- Papal Relations with Secular Governments
- Popes as Defenders of Orthodoxy
- Popes and Crusades
- Papal Efforts to Restore Church Unity
By gifts, purchases, and conquests, the popes became rulers over one of the oldest continuously functioning states of Europe, the Papal States, a territory that stretched from Rome and its environs northeastward to the Adriatic Sea. It was composed of six regions: Rome, the Campagna and Marittima, the Patrimony of St. Peter, Umbria, the Marches, an...
The attempts to challenge the papacy for leadership of the church through general councils ended with the Frenchand imperial-sponsored Council of Pisa-Milan-Asti-Lyon (1511–1512), which was defeated by the rival papal Fifth Lateran Council (1512–1517). The appeal of Martin Luther (1483–1546) for a "free general Christian council in German lands" wa...
The early modern period witnessed some remarkable changes in the college of cardinals, the group of prominent clerics who elected the pope and functioned as his official advisers and chief administrators. The concordats negotiated at Constance in 1418 and the decree of Basel in 1436 attempted to limit the number of cardinals to twenty-four, with no...
Early modern popes tried to assert their theoretical superiority to bishops while yielding to secular rulers greater influence in their selection. The papacy insisted on its prerogative to confirm the election of a bishop by the canons of a cathedral chapter or to make the appointment itself and to collect from the new bishop as a fee for this conf...
The central administrative, judicial, favor-granting, and financial offices of the Catholic Church, under the supervision of the pope and the college of cardinals, was known in the Renaissance as the Roman Curia. Its departments, often headed by cardinals, employed hundreds of officials ranging from learned canonists to ignorant sealers of document...
Throughout much of the Renaissance, papal finances were difficult to manage. The popes levied no annual income tax on church members but instead depended on a patchwork of traditional sources of revenues. Among these were the fees charged for documents appointing or confirming officeholders, the principal fee being the annate or first year's revenu...
Early modern popes tried to maintain the claims of their medieval predecessors to rule not only over the spiritual realm, but also over the temporal order in certain circumstances. They claimed the right to approve the election of the Holy Roman emperor and to crown him personally. Leo X failed in his efforts to block the election of Charles V of H...
Early modern popes continued to exercise their traditional role, codified in canon law, as the ultimate arbiters of orthodoxy, issuing rulings on their own authority or with the backing of the council, after an examination by a theological commission. In such a way, Leo X issued at the Fifth Lateran Council bulls approving as not usurious the fees ...
The early modern papacy often assumed a significant role in the defense of Christendom from Islamic threats. The papacy often encouraged this effort by providing financial subsidies and sending its own troops, sailors, and ships to join in the expeditions. The efforts of Leo X to organize a united crusade against the Turks failed due to the rivalry...
Early modern popes tried by various means either to bring heretics back to the church or to eradicate them. Leo X sent Cardinal Tamas Bakócz (1442–1521) on an unsuccessful peace mission to the Hussites in 1513. On urgings from Rome, Waldensian communities were forcibly eradicated from Calabria, gradually eliminated in Apulia, and ordered expelled f...
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The Papal States comprised those territories over which the Pope was the ruler in a civil as well as a spiritual sense before 1870. This governing power is commonly called the temporal power of the Pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. The papal states were also referred to as the patrimony of Saint Peter (Patrimonium Sancti Petri).
Upon completion of the Segnatura, Raphael begins work on the Stanza d’Eliodoro (completed ca. 1514), the frescoes for which depict scenes from both legendary and actual papal history. In 1514, under Leo X, he works on the Stanza dell’Incendio (1514–17), which takes its name from his Fire in the Borgo fresco for one of its walls.
From their inception in the turbulent Middle Ages to their eventual dissolution in the face of burgeoning nationalism, these territories have witnessed epochs of grandeur, conflict, and transformation. But how did the Papal States rise to prominence amidst the political quagmire of medieval Europe?
