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  1. smarthistory.org › reframing-art-history › warWar, democracy, and art in ancient Greece, c. 490–350 B.C.E.

    Dec 6, 2023 · The art and architecture of Classical Greece (c. 490–323 B.C.E.) has had an outsized impact in the history of art. It was revered and emulated in later periods and places such as Hellenistic Pergamon, Augustan Rome, and renaissance Italy. Writing in the eighteenth century, Johann Joachim Winckelmann deemed classical Greek art the pinnacle of ...

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  3. www.khanacademy.org › humanities › ancient-artIntroduction to ancient Greek art (article) | Khan Academy

    • Overview
    • A shared language, religion, and culture
    • The Dark Ages (c. 1100–c. 800 B.C.E.) to the Orientalizing Period (c. 700–600 B.C.E.)
    • The Archaic Period (c. 600–480/479 B.C.E.)
    • The Classical Period (480/479–323 B.C.E.)
    • The Hellenistic Period and Beyond (323 B.C.E.–31 B.C.E.)

    By Dr. Renee M. Gondek

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    Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of

    and

    , to the treatises of

    , from the exacting measurements of the Parthenon (above) to the rhythmic chaos of the Laocoön (below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Thanks largely to notable archaeological sites, well-known literary sources, and the impact of Hollywood (Clash of the Titans, for example), this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness—prompting visions of epic battles, erudite philosophers, gleaming white temples, and limbless nudes (we now know the sculptures—even the ones that decorated temples like the Parthenon—were brightly painted, and, of course, the fact that the figures are often missing limbs is the result of the ravages of time).

    Dispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called poleis or

    , the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture. Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called “Panhellenic” sanctuaries and festivals that embraced “all Greeks” and encouraged interaction, competition, and exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek civilization was vast and did not develop overnight.

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    Following the collapse of the Mycenaean citadels of the late Bronze Age, the Greek mainland was traditionally thought to enter a “Dark Age” that lasted from c. 1100 until c. 800 B.C.E. Not only did the complex socio-cultural system of the Mycenaeans disappear, but also its numerous achievements (i.e., metalworking, large-scale construction, writing). The discovery and continuous excavation of a site known as Lefkandi, however, drastically alters this impression. Located just north of Athens, Lefkandi has yielded an immense

    structure (almost fifty meters long), a massive network of graves, and two heroic burials replete with gold objects and valuable horse sacrifices. One of the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine (see photos below). At fourteen inches high, the terracotta creature is composed of a equine (horse) torso made on a potter’s wheel and hand-formed human limbs and features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the cultural richness of this period.

    Similar in its adoption of narrative elements is a vase-painting likely from Thebes dating to c. 730 B.C.E. (see image below). Fully ensconced in the Geometric Period (c. 800–700 B.C.E.), the imagery on the vase reflects other eighth-century artifacts, such as the Dipylon Amphora, with its geometric patterning and silhouetted human forms. Though simplistic, the overall scene on this vase seems to record a story. A man and woman stand beside a ship outfitted with tiers of rowers. Grasping at the stern and lifting one leg into the hull, the man turns back towards the female and takes her by the wrist. Is the couple

    ? Is this an abduction? Perhaps

    ? Or, is the man bidding farewell to the woman and embarking on a journey as had

    ? The answer is unattainable.

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    While Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures throughout the Archaic Period, the city of Athens witnessed the rise and fall of tyrants and the introduction of democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E.

    Visually, the period is known for large-scale marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures (see below). Showing the influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture (like this example of the Pharaoh Menkaure and his wife in the MFA, Boston), the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently employed as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed unabashed nudity, highlighting their complicated hairstyles and abstracted musculature (below left). The kore, on the other hand, was never nude. Not only was her form draped in layers of fabric, but she was also ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. Though some have been discovered in funerary contexts, like Phrasiklea (below right), a vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens (more on the Acropolis korai). Ritualistically buried following desecration of this sanctuary by the Persians in 480 and 479 B.C.E., dozens of korai were unearthed alongside other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities of these figures have been hotly debated in recent times, most agree that they were originally intended as votive offerings to the goddess Athena.

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    Though experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, it was not until the Classical Period that two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The “Early Classical Period” (480/479–450 B.C.E.) was a period of transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers alongside the so-called “Severe Style.” As can be seen in the Kritios Boy, c. 480 B.C.E., the “Severe Style” features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids. For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the Niobid Painter’s vase in the Louvre (image below).

    During the “High Classical Period” (450–400 B.C.E.), there was great artistic success: from the innovative structures on the Acropolis to Polykleitos’ visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the Doryphoros or “Canon” (image below). Concurrently, however, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 B.C.E. Despite continued military activity throughout the “Late Classical Period” (400–323 B.C.E.), artistic production and development continued apace. In addition to a new figural aesthetic in the fourth century known for its longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads (for example, the Apoxyomenos), the first female nude was produced. Known as the Aphrodite of Knidos, c. 350 B.C.E., the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-Curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a pudica (or modest Venus) pose (see a Roman copy in the Capitoline Museum in Rome here). Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, the Aphrodite of Knidos became one of the most celebrated sculptures in all of antiquity.

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    Following the death of

    in 323 B.C.E., the Greeks and their influence stretched as far east as modern India. While some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style of the previous period such as Eutychides’ Tyche of Antioche (Louvre), other artists were more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon (below) expressions of agony and a confused mass of limbs convey a newfound interest in drama.

    Architecturally, the scale of structures vastly increased, as can be seen with the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, and some complexes even terraced their surrounding landscape in order to create spectacular vistas as can be seem at the Sanctuary of Asklepios on Kos. Upon the defeat of Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E., the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt and, simultaneously, the Hellenistic Period came to a close. With the Roman admiration of and predilection for Greek art and culture, however, Classical aesthetics and teachings continued to endure from antiquity to the modern era.

    Additional resources

    The Art of classical Greece from the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

    Greek Art in the Archaic Period on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

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  4. www.khanacademy.org › humanities › ancient-artAncient Greece, an introduction (article) | Khan Academy

    Following the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, the Hellenistic period (323-31 B.C.E.) saw Greek power and culture extended across the Middle East and as far as the Indus Valley. When Rome absorbed the Greek world into its vast empire, Greek ideas, art and culture greatly influenced the Romans.

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  6. smarthistory.org › greek-vase-introSmarthistory – Greek Vase-Painting, an introduction

    Dec 6, 2023 · Later, during the Archaic and Classical Periods (c. 600-323 B.C.E.), vase-paintings primarily display human and mythological activities. These figural scenes can vary widely, from daily life events (e.g., fetching water at the fountain house) to heroic deeds and Homeric tales (e.g., Theseus and the bull, Odysseus and the Sirens), from the world ...

  7. smarthistory.org › greek_introSmarthistory – Introduction to ancient Greek art

    Dec 6, 2023 · Check out our three chapters about ancient Greek art in Reframing Art History: Pottery, the body, and the gods in ancient Greece, c. 800–490 B.C.E. War, democracy, and art in ancient Greece, c. 490–350 B.C.E. Empire and Art in the Hellenistic world (c. 350–31 B.C.E.) The Art of classical Greece from the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s ...

  8. www.khanacademy.org › humanities › ancient-artThe Chigi Painter, The Chigi Vase (article) | Khan Academy

    Chariot and horse riders with hare hunt below (detail), The Chigi Painter, The Chigi Vase, c. 640 B.C.E., ceramic (Villa Giulia, Rome; photo: ArchaiOptix, CC BY-SA 4.0) Just next to the sphinx is a chariot pulled by four horses who are directed by a nude youth. The chariot is followed by four young men riding horses.

  9. academy.artexplora.org › en › chaptersArchaic and Classical Greek Art - Art Explora Academy

    Classical Greek art remained an absolute reference for Western artists for centuries. It was the timeless model for Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and even for some painters and sculptors during the 19th century. The Belvedere Torso, 1st century BC, marble, 62.5 inches (height), Vatican Museums, Rome. Photo: Yair Haklai, CC BY-SA 3.0.

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