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The economic background. The century’s economic expansion owed much to powerful changes that were already under way by 1500. At that time, Europe comprised only between one-third and one-half the population it had possessed about 1300.
History of Europe - Industrial Revolution, Enlightenment, Monarchies: During the second half of the 19th century, politics and socioeconomic conditions became increasingly intertwined in Europe, producing a new definition of government functions, including a greatly expanded state and a new political spectrum.
Fifty years earlier a British monopoly and a tax on tea had driven American merchants to revolution; by 1815 policies of their own republican government allowed American merchants to grow rich by selling tea in Europe, at a lower price than any European trader could match.
[clarification needed] François Crouzet has succinctly summarized the ups and downs of French per capita economic growth in 1815-1913 as follows: 1815-1840: irregular, but sometimes fast growth 1840-1860: fast growth; 1860-1882: slowing down; 1882-1896: stagnation; 1896-1913: fast growth
Overall, however, crop production grew 50% between 1795 and 1815. The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets. The well-organised business sector channelled products into what the military needed.
How were the economic systems in Europe beginning to drive social change? How did this differ for areas like Russia, Prussia and Eastern Europe? What new cultural and intellectual ideas were changing European social structures? How? Where did these ideas come from?
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European economic development. Foreign trade, and especially trade with the Americas, was the most dynamic sector of the whole economy (for instance, French colonial trade increased tenfold between 1716 and 1787), and furthermore the demand from over-seas markets was stimulating the growth of a wide range of indus-
