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Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome (BZD withdrawal) is the cluster of signs and symptoms that may emerge when a person who has been taking benzodiazepines as prescribed develops a physical dependence on them and then reduces the dose or stops taking them without a safe taper schedule.
Nov 1, 2016 · Few studies have tested the optimal rate of discontinuation of benzodiazepines in elderly long-term users. Anecdotal evidence suggests that slower tapers are more successful because they do not cause the increased anxiety associated with benzodiazepine withdrawal.
- Matej Markota, Teresa A. Rummans, John Michael Bostwick, Maria I. Lapid
- 2016
Tianeptine is usually packaged as a sodium salt but can also be found as tianeptine sulfate, a slower-releasing formulation patented by Janssen in 2012. [64] In 2022 Tonix Pharmaceuticals received permission from the US FDA to conduct phase II clinical trials on tianeptine hemioxalate extended-release tablets designed for once-daily use. [ 65 ]
Jan 11, 2024 · Chronic use of a benzodiazepine can cause physiologic dependence and the potential for a withdrawal syndrome upon rapid discontinuation. Benzodiazepine dependance can develop from use of prescribed, illicit (ie, non-prescribed use of compounds used medically), and designer (ie, compounds not used medically) agents.
- Forms
- History
- Chemical Properties
- Physical Properties
- Structure
- Production
- Applications
- Safety
Anhydrous sodium sulfate, known as the rare mineral thenardite, used as a drying agent in organic synthesis.Heptahydrate sodium sulfate, a very rare form.Decahydrate sodium sulfate, known as the mineral mirabilite, widely used by chemical industry. It is also known as Glauber's salt.The decahydrate of sodium sulfate is known as Glauber's salt after the Dutch–German chemist and apothecary Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670), who discovered it in Austrian spring water in 1625. He named it sal mirabilis (miraculous salt), because of its medicinal properties: the crystals were used as a general-purpose laxative, until more sophistic...
Sodium sulfate is a typical electrostatically bonded ionic sulfate. The existence of free sulfate ions in solution is indicated by the easy formation of insoluble sulfates when these solutions are treated with Ba2+ or Pb2+salts: 1. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → 2 NaCl + BaSO4 Sodium sulfate is unreactive toward most oxidizing or reducing agents. At high tempera...
Sodium sulfate has unusual solubility characteristics in water. Its solubility in water rises more than tenfold between 0 °C and 32.384 °C, where it reaches a maximum of 49.7 g/100 mL. At this point the solubility curve changes slope, and the solubility becomes almost independent of temperature. This temperature of 32.384 °C, corresponding to the r...
Crystals of the decahydrate consist of [Na(OH2)6]+ ions with octahedral molecular geometry. These octahedra share edges such that 8 of the 10 water molecules are bound to sodium and 2 others are interstitial, being hydrogen-bonded to sulfate. These cations are linked to the sulfate anions by hydrogen bonds. The Na–O distances are about 240 pm. Crys...
The world production of sodium sulfate, almost exclusively in the form of the decahydrate, amounts to approximately 5.5 to 6 million tonnes annually (Mt/a). In 1985, production was 4.5 Mt/a, half from natural sources, and half from chemical production. After 2000, at a stable level until 2006, natural production had increased to 4 Mt/a, and chemica...
Commodity industries
With US pricing at $30 per tonne in 1970, up to $90 per tonne for salt cake quality, and $130 for better grades, sodium sulphate is a very cheap material. The largest use is as filler in powdered home laundry detergents, consuming approximately 50% of world production. This use is waning as domestic consumers are increasingly switching to compact or liquid detergents that do not include sodium sulfate.
Papermaking
Another formerly major use for sodium sulfate, notably in the US and Canada, is in the Kraft process for the manufacture of wood pulp. Organics present in the "black liquor" from this process are burnt to produce heat, needed to drive the reduction of sodium sulfate to sodium sulfide. However, due to advances in the thermal efficiency of the Kraft recovery process in the early 1960s, more efficient sulfur recovery was achieved and the need for sodium sulfate makeup was drastically reduced.Hen...
Glassmaking
The glass industry provides another significant application for sodium sulfate, as second largest application in Europe. Sodium sulfate is used as a fining agent, to help remove small air bubbles from molten glass. It fluxes the glass, and prevents scum formation of the glass melt during refining. The glass industry in Europe has been consuming from 1970 to 2006 a stable 110,000 tonnes annually.
Although sodium sulfate is generally regarded as non-toxic, it should be handled with care. The dust can cause temporary asthma or eye irritation; this risk can be prevented by using eye protection and a paper mask. Transport is not limited, and no Risk Phrase or Safety Phraseapplies.
May 29, 2024 · Signs and Symptoms of Benzodiazepine Withdrawal. Withdrawal symptoms can occur after as little as one month of use, even on small, therapeutic doses. Among people taking benzodiazepines for longer than six months, about 40% experience moderate to severe withdrawal symptoms when they quit suddenly.
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However, elderly patients are more likely to have age-related liver, kidney, or heart problems, and unwanted effects (eg, fluid or electrolyte imbalance), which may require caution in patients receiving Suprep Bowel Prep Kit®.
