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The War of 1812 was the second war between the United States and Great Britain. The United States won its independence in the first war—the American Revolution. Neither country won anything important in the War of 1812. Background. In the early 1800s Great Britain was fighting a war against France.
Learn about the War of 1812, a conflict between the United States and the United Kingdom, with facts, battles, and results. Find out how the war affected the U.S. and the UK, and why it is sometimes called the "Second War of Independence".
The War of 1812 was the second war between the United States and Great Britain. The United States won its independence in the first war—the American Revolution. The War of 1812 ended without a clear victory for either side. It was tragic in its loss of life, money, and property, but otherwise it was almost a comedy of cross-purposes and blunders.
- Overview
- War in Europe and grievances in the United States
- The War of 1812
- The Hartford Convention and the Treaty of Ghent
- The end of the war of 1812
- The War of 1812 and Native Americans
- What do you think?
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The War of 1812 pitted US forces against those of Great Britain in a battle for control over the destiny of the North American continent.
The War of 1812, which lasted from June 18, 1812 to February 18, 1815, was a military conflict between the United States, Great Britain, and Great Britain's Native American allies on the North American continent.
After the American Revolution, the United States and Great Britain were hardly on good terms. To achieve victory, the United States had accepted aid from France, Great Britain’s longtime enemy and imperial rival. Tempers flared again in the early 1800s when the Napoleonic Wars between France and Britain led the British to implement a number of military measures aimed at weakening France.
Unfortunately, Americans were caught in the crossfire, despite US neutrality in the war. First, the British had begun the practice of impressment, or forcing American sailors into British military service. Britain also imposed trade restrictions on the United States, refused to recognize US neutrality in the European war, and routinely violated neutral shipping rights. These measures were designed to prevent the United States from providing France with aid, supplies, or support.
The British had also allied with Native Americans in the Northwest Territory (encompassing the modern-day states of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin). Comprised of several tribes, including the Shawnee, Kickapoo, Sauk, Fox, and Winnebago, a Native American confederacy led by Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa and his brother Tecumseh had arisen to challenge US settlement in the territory.
The seizure of American ships and sailors, combined with the British support of Tecumseh's uprising, led to strident calls in Congress for war against Great Britain. The loudest came from the “war hawks,” led by Henry Clay from Kentucky and John C. Calhoun from South Carolina, who proclaimed that they would not tolerate these British insults to American honor. Many Federalists opposed the war, since they believed it would disrupt the maritime trade on which many northeastern businesses depended. In a narrow vote, Congress authorized the president to declare war against Britain in June 1812.
The US military strategy focused on seizing parts of Canada in the hopes of forcing British concessions. However, the US army was small, disorganized, and poorly equipped. Despite these shortcomings, the Americans managed two significant victories over the British in battles on or near Lake Erie in the fall of 1813. In the Battle of the Thames, Tecumseh was killed and Native American resistance was crushed.
Meanwhile, events in Europe continued to influence the course of the war. With the abdication of Napoleon in April 1814, the British were able to devote more of their resources to the war with the United States. The end of the war in Europe, moreover, made some of US President James Madison’s demands, such as the return of neutral shipping rights and the immediate cessation of impressment, irrelevant. With the British no longer at war with France, these practices were abandoned before the end of the war with the United States.
In the Battle of Bladensburg in August 1814, the British sacked and burned Washington, DC, plundering the White House and wounding US national pride. The British continued their march north but were unable to capture Baltimore in the Battle of Fort McHenry, during which Francis Scott Key penned the poem that would later become the US national anthem, the Star-Spangled Banner. 2
The War of 1812 was very unpopular in New England because it disproportionately affected the region, which was the most dependent on maritime commerce.
The war sparked a resurgence of the Federalist Party in New England. Many Federalists deeply resented the power of the slaveholding Virginians (Jefferson and then Madison), who appeared indifferent to the war's economic impact on their region. In December 1814, twenty-six Federalists called a meeting in Connecticut to discuss the economic tumult. At the Hartford Convention, some attendees issued calls for New England to secede from the United States. But the tactic backfired: by suggesting secession during wartime and condemning the new American government, Federalists appeared unpatriotic. The Hartford Convention discredited the Federalist Party and sowed the seeds for the party’s demise.
Popular anti-war sentiment increased, and the military conflict effectively stalemated by 1815. The Madison administration then entered into peace negotiations with the British. The Treaty of Ghent, which formally ended the war, involved no significant change in pre-war borders or boundaries.
With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the British had already abandoned their policy of impressing American sailors, and had informally lifted restrictions on neutral trade. According to the terms of the treaty, the British returned nearly four thousand Americans who had been classified as prisoners of war and forced into British service.
The end of hostilities ushered in the “Era of Good Feelings,” during which US-British relations improved. The nation’s sense of victory and unity was enhanced by the dissolution of the Federalist Party and the easing of bitter partisan divisions.
In the aftermath of the War of 1812, the American people began to think of the United States as a proud and independent nation rather than a collection of formerly colonial territories. For this reason, the war is sometimes referred to as the “Second War of Independence.” The war also resolved one of the United States’ major grievances: British support for Native American tribes in an effort to halt US westward expansion. 3
For American Indians, the war was devastating. General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military capabilities of the Creek nation in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in March 1814. The battle occurred in the Mississippi Territory, which Jackson sought to clear for US settlement. Approximately 15% of the entire Creek population was killed. The Treaty of Fort Jackson forced the Creeks to surrender twenty-three million acres of land and to promise to never again ally with the British or Spanish against the Americans.
The US victory and the death of Tecumseh in battle ended any prospect of a Native American alliance system or confederation, and the British essentially abandoned their Native American allies. With no protection from the British, and very little tribal cohesion, Native Americans would suffer further defeats as the United States continued to expand ever westward.
Why did the United States and Britain go to war in 1812?
What was the impact of the war on Native Americans?
What were the most significant consequences of the War of 1812?
[Notes and attributions]
Learn about the causes, events, and consequences of the War of 1812, a conflict between the US and Britain over trade and territory. Find out how the war affected the US-British relations, the Native Americans, and the Federalist Party.
Sep 6, 2023 · Learn about the War of 1812 through fun games and activities for kids. Find out what life was like for sailors, powder monkeys, merchants and communities during this conflict.
Learn about the causes, events, and outcomes of the War of 1812, also known as the Second War of Independence. Discover how Tecumseh, the Star-Spangled Banner, and fire and storms shaped the conflict.
