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Like other forms of deviance, however, ambiguity exists concerning what constitutes a crime and whether all crimes are, in fact, “bad” and deserve punishment. For example, during the 1960s, civil rights activists often violated laws intentionally as part of their effort to bring about racial equality.
Feb 20, 2021 · For example, during the 1960s, civil rights activists often violated laws intentionally as part of their effort to bring about racial equality. In hindsight, we recognize that the laws that deemed many of their actions crimes—for instance, Rosa Parks taking a seat in the “whites only” section of the bus—were inconsistent with social ...
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Dec 14, 2023 · Segregated spatial locations, race-ethnic composition, and neighborhood violent crime. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 623, 93–107. Figure 5.4.2 5.4. 2: Race and Fear of Crime. Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2010. Race also affects views about the criminal justice system.
- Overview
- Civil law
- Islamic law
- Africa
- China
Whereas the criminal legal systems of most English-speaking countries are based on English common law, those of most European and Latin American countries, as well as many countries in Africa and Asia, are based on civil law. The civil-law tradition originated in the Law of the Twelve Tables (451–450 bc), a legal code that was posted in the Roman F...
Whereas the criminal legal systems of most English-speaking countries are based on English common law, those of most European and Latin American countries, as well as many countries in Africa and Asia, are based on civil law. The civil-law tradition originated in the Law of the Twelve Tables (451–450 bc), a legal code that was posted in the Roman F...
Countries with majority Muslim populations have adopted diverse legal systems. Those that were once English colonies (e.g., Pakistan, Bangladesh, Jordan, and some of the Persian Gulf states) largely adopted English criminal law and procedure, and those under French colonial influence (e.g., the countries of the Maghrib and North Africa, including Egypt, as well as Syria and Iraq) generally adopted civil-law systems. A third group comprises those states that retained or later adopted Islamic law—called the Sharīʿah—with few or no reforms (e.g., Saudi Arabia and Iran). (The last shāh of Iran had reformed a large amount of the law, building on previous colonial laws, but it was almost totally replaced following the Islamic revolution in that country in 1979.)
Islamic law is a theocratic legal system that is believed to be derived from God (Allah) through the teachings of Muhammad as recorded in the Qurʾān. In fundamentalist Islam, law is also derived from the teachings of Muhammad that are not explicitly in the Qurʾān. Laws do not originate from secular sources, such as kings or legislatures. The Sharīʿah serves as a criminal code that lists several ḥadd crimes, or offenses for which punishments are fixed and unalterable. For example, apostasy requires a death sentence, extramarital sexual relations require death by stoning, and consuming alcoholic beverages requires 80 lashes. Other lesser crimes (taʿzīr) allow judges discretion in sentencing offenders.
Criminal offenses in most modern African countries are defined in criminal or penal codes, a radical departure from the uncodified English criminal law on which many of these codes are based. Because of their origins, these codes generally reflect the penal assumptions of the original colonial power. The main concessions to local African values or problems are the inclusion of legislation against various customary practices, notably witchcraft; the extension of the criminal law in states with planned economies to cover economic crimes against the state; and, as a consequence of the soaring rate of some kinds of crime, special provision for certain offenses (e.g., armed robbery). Special tribunals, not subject to the ordinary rules of procedure, have been established in many African countries to deal with such offenses.
Sierra Leone retained a greater role for traditional, or customary, law than most other African countries. A former British territory that obtained independence in 1961, Sierra Leone adopted a “general law” based on English common law and on the statutes of the national legislature. In the mid-1960s those laws were consolidated in a single statute, but most of the population lived in rural areas and largely were governed by what was called “customary law.” Whereas general law now applies to the entire country, customary law, which originated in the customs and cultures of the indigenous peoples, still varies by area or district. Customary law is enforced in separate courts in which the judges are politically appointed tribal elders.
For thousands of years, China tended to avoid formal law, instead basing social control on informal customary codes of behaviour, many of which were derived from the teachings of Confucius (551–479 bc). Those informal codes emphasized mediation and reconciliation of conflicts, which enabled all parties to “save face.” The codes continued to be followed even after the establishment of the communist People’s Republic of China in 1949, in part because Chairman Mao Zedong was suspicious of formal law, which he regarded as a bourgeois institution. That suspicion culminated in the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), during which formal legal institutions largely disintegrated or were destroyed.
The rise to power of Deng Xiaoping following the end of the Cultural Revolution brought the establishment of formal legality as part of a broad reform of Chinese society. In 1979 the National People’s Congress, China’s legislature, adopted the first codes of criminal law and criminal procedure, and the first civil code was adopted in 1986. The criminal code, which was fairly simple and was revised in the 1990s, addressed the entire range of crimes and punishments.
Crime and Public Opinion. One thing we know is that the American public is very concerned about crime. In a 2009 Gallup Poll, about 55% said crime is an “extremely” or “very” serious problem in the United States, and in other national surveys, about one-third of Americans said they would be afraid to walk alone in their neighborhoods at night (Maguire & Pastore, 2009; Saad, 2008).
a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law. crime: a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions. criminal justice system: an organization that exists to enforce a legal code. hate crimes: attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics.
Political crimes: Criminals of these types of crimes have a political and economic motive. Some examples are spying, treason, etc. Public order crimes: The regular conduct of society and its norms are disturbed by such crimes, causing harm. Examples include alcoholism, vandalism, breaking traffic rules, etc.
