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Mammals are among the most adaptable animals on the planet. They are found on every continent and in every ocean, and range in size from tiny bumblebee bats to enormous blue whales. One reason...
- Beaver
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- Bengal Tiger
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- Mammals
Mammals include humans and all other animals that are...
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- Overview
- Primary organ rudiments
At some early stage during the evolution of viviparous mammals, eggs came to be retained in the oviducts of the mother. The embryo then was provided with nourishment from fluids in the oviduct; the yolk, which became redundant, gradually ceased to be provided, and the eggs became oligolecithal. The eggshell, present in reptiles, was no longer needed and eventually disappeared, as did the white of the egg. The chorion, however, remained as the most external coat of the developing embryo through which nourishment reaches the embryo. It acquired the ability to adhere closely to the walls of the uterus (which was what that part of the oviduct holding the embryo had become) and became the so-called trophoblast. The blood-vessel network of the underlying allantois conveys nutrients that diffuse through the trophoblast to the body of the embryo proper. These modifications gave rise to a new organ, the placenta, formed from tissues of both the mother and the embryo: the uterine wall with its blood vessels provided by the mother; the trophoblast and allantois—and in some mammals also the yolk sac—with their blood vessels provided by the embryo.
The overall development of placental mammals as a result of these changes is profoundly different from that of their ancestors, the reptiles, and proceeds in the following way: the tiny yolkless egg is fertilized in the upper portion of the oviduct by sperm received from the male in the process of coupling (coitus); cleavage starts as the egg is propelled slowly down the oviduct by action of cilia in the oviduct lining. At the end of cleavage a solid ball of cells called a morula is produced. The surface cells of the morula become the trophoblast and the inner cell mass gives rise to the embryo (the formative cells) and also its yolk sac, amnion, and allantois. A cavity appears within the morula, converting it into a hollow embryo, called the blastocyst. This cavity resembles the blastocoel but, in fact, is analogous to the yolk sac of meroblastic eggs, except that there is no yolk and the cavity is filled with fluid. At the blastocyst stage, the embryo enters the uterus and attaches itself to the uterine wall. This attachment, or implantation, a crucial step in the development of a mammal, is attained through the action of the trophoblast, which forms extensions, known as villi, that penetrate the uterine wall. In higher placental mammals, the lining of the uterine wall and, in varying degrees, the underlying tissues as well are partially destroyed, resulting in a closer relationship between the blood supplies of the mother and the embryo. Indeed, in man and in some rodents, the blastocyst sinks completely into the uterine wall and becomes surrounded by uterine tissue.
While implantation takes place, the formative cells arrange themselves in the form of a disk under the trophoblast. In the disk, the germinal layers develop much as in birds, with the formation of a primitive streak and migration of the chordamesoderm into a deeper layer. A layer of endoderm is formed adjoining the cavity of the blastocyst, and an amniotic cavity develops, enclosing the embryo; in lower placental mammals, the allantois also develops. The embryo proper, lying in the amniotic cavity, is connected to the extra-embryonic parts by the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord lengthens greatly during later development. In higher mammals, the cavity of the allantois is reduced, but the allantoic blood vessels become well developed and extend through the umbilical cord, connecting the embryo to the placenta. The blood that circulates in the placenta brings oxygen and nutrients from the maternal blood to the embryo and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products from the embryo to the maternal blood for disposal by the maternal body.
Although tissues of maternal and embryonic origin are closely apposed in the placenta, there is little actual mingling of the tissues. Despite an occasional penetration of an embryo cell into the mother and vice versa, there is a placental barrier between the two tissues. The blood circulation of the mother is at all times completely separated from that of the embryo and its extra-embryonic parts. The placental barrier, however, does allow molecules of various substances to pass through; such differential permeability is indeed necessary if the embryo is to obtain nourishment. The permeability of the placental barrier differs in different animals; thus antibodies, which are protein molecules, may penetrate the placental barrier in man but not in cattle.
The maintenance of the fetus—as the more advanced embryo of a mammal is called—in the uterus is under hormonal control. In the initial stages of pregnancy, the continued existence of the embryo in the uterus depends on the hormone progesterone, which is secreted by the corpora lutea, “yellow bodies,” that develop in the ovary after an egg has been released.
At birth the fetal parts of the placenta separate from the maternal parts. Contraction of the uterine wall first releases the fetus from the uterus; the fetal parts of the placenta (the afterbirth) follow. In certain cases of intimate connection between fetal and maternal tissues, the maternal tissues are torn, and birth is accompanied by profuse bleeding.
Immediately after gastrulation—and sometimes even while gastrulation is underway—the germinal layers begin subdividing into regions that will give rise to various parts of the body. Subdivision proceeds in stages: initially a mass of cells is set aside for an organ system (for the alimentary canal, for instance) and subsequently further subdivided ...
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Why are mammals so adaptable?
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How do animals adapt to their environment?
Mar 5, 2019 · The adaptation of animals and plants to their environment is a series of varied biological processes with varying purposes, but the general purpose is the continued survival of the species. This is key to the difference between an animal's adaptation and ability.
Oct 30, 2018 · How long humans and other warm-blooded animals live—and when they reach sexual maturity—may have more to do with neurons in their cortex than body size or mass, according to new research by ...
The answer is adaptation. Animals living in harsh conditions will alter their behavior to adjust to changes in their environment. Some animals develop physical changes that make them better suited to their environment than animals with similar physical traits. So, how and why do these adaptations occur? Read on to find out more.
May 20, 2024 · Discover the top 5 most adaptable animals on our planet. Learn how these incredible creatures have evolved to thrive in diverse environments.
Marine mammals have several adaptations for swimming. An obligate swimmer is any species that spends its entire life in water. All whales and dolphins are obligate swimmers. Unlike pinnipeds, otters, and polar bears, cetaceans cannot survive on land for extended periods of time. Similarly, all sirenians are obligate swimmers.
