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Jan 18, 2019 · Glass: Directed by M. Night Shyamalan. With James McAvoy, Bruce Willis, Samuel L. Jackson, Anya Taylor-Joy. Security guard David Dunn uses his supernatural abilities to track Kevin Wendell Crumb, a disturbed man who has twenty-four personalities.
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Glass is an amorphous or non-crystalline solid. Because it is often transparent and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in window panes, tableware, and optics. Some common objects made of glass like "a glass" of water, "glasses", and a "looking glass", have become named for their material.
- Overview
- Commercial glass composition
- Optical and high-temperature glass
- Adding colour and special properties
- Glassmaking over the centuries
Glass is an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle, and impervious to the natural elements.
What is glass made out of?
Commercial glass is usually made of sand, limestone, and sodium carbonate that is raised in temperature until it is molten. It is then cooled quickly so as to prevent the formation of visible crystals.
Why does glass break?
Glass breaks because of impurities caused by moisture or dust in the air during glass production. These impurities cause microscopic fractures and stress in the glass that give way when too much pressure is applied.
Does glass decompose?
Commercial glasses may be divided into soda–lime–silica glasses and special glasses, most of the tonnage produced being of the former class. Such glasses are made from three main materials—sand (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), limestone (calcium carbonate, or CaCO3), and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Fused silica itself is an excellent glass, but, as the melting point of sand (crystalline silica) is above 1,700 °C (3,092 °F) and as it is very expensive to attain such high temperatures, its uses are restricted to those in which its superior properties—chemical inertness and the ability to withstand sudden changes of temperature—are so important that the cost is justified. Nevertheless, the production of fused silica glass is quite a large industry; it is manufactured in various qualities, and, when intended for optical purposes, the raw material used is rock crystal rather than quartz sand.
To reduce the melting point of silica, it is necessary to add a flux; this is the purpose of the sodium carbonate (soda ash), which makes available the fluxing agent sodium oxide. By adding about 25 percent of the sodium oxide to silica, the melting point is reduced from 1,723 to 850 °C (3,133 to 1,562 °F). But such glasses are easily soluble in water (their solutions are called water glass). The addition of lime (calcium oxide, or CaO), supplied by the limestone, renders the glass insoluble again, but too much makes a glass prone to devitrification—i.e., the precipitation of crystalline phases in certain ranges of temperature. The optimum composition is about 75 percent silica, 10 percent lime, and 15 percent soda, but even this is too liable to devitrification during certain mechanical forming operations to be satisfactory.
In making sheet glass it is customary to use 6 percent of lime and 4 percent of magnesia (magnesium oxide, or MgO), and in bottle glass about 2 percent alumina (aluminum oxide, or Al2O3) is often present. Other materials are also added, some being put in to assist in refining the glass (i.e., to remove the bubbles left behind in the melting process), while others are added to improve its colour. For example, sand always contains iron as an impurity, and, although the material used for making bottles is specially selected for its low iron content, the small traces of impurity still impart an undesirable green colour to the container; by the use of selenium and cobalt oxide together with traces of arsenic trioxide and sodium nitrate, it is possible to neutralize the green colour and produce a so-called white (decolourized) glass.
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Glasses of very different, and often much more expensive, compositions are made when special physical and chemical properties are necessary. For example, in optical glasses, a wide range of compositions is required to obtain the variety of refractive index and dispersion needed if the lens designer is to produce multicomponent lenses that are free from the various faults associated with a single lens, such as chromatic aberration. High-purity, ultratransparent oxide glasses have been developed for use in fibre-optic telecommunications systems, in which messages are transmitted as light pulses over glass fibres.
When ordinary glass is subjected to a sudden change of temperature, stresses are produced in it that render it liable to fracture; by reducing its coefficient of thermal expansion, however, it is possible to make it much less susceptible to thermal shock. The glass with the lowest expansion coefficient is fused silica. Another well-known example is the borosilicate glass used for making domestic cookware, which has an expansion coefficient only one-third that of the typical soda–lime–silica glass. In order to effect this reduction, much of the sodium oxide added as a flux is replaced by boric oxide (B2O3) and some of the lime by alumina. Another familiar special glass is the lead crystal glass used in the manufacture of superior tableware; by using lead monoxide (PbO) as a flux, it is possible to obtain a glass with a high refractive index and, consequently, the desired sparkle and brilliance.
The agents used to colour glass are generally metallic oxides. The same oxide may produce different colours with different glass mixtures, and different oxides of the same metal may produce different colours. The purple-blue of cobalt, the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the dichroic canary colour of uranium, and the violet of manganese are constant. Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or a pale blue according to the glass with which it is mixed. Ferric oxide gives a yellow colour but requires an oxidizing agent to prevent reduction to the ferrous state. Lead gives a pale yellow colour. Silver oxide gives a permanent yellow stain. Finely divided vegetable charcoal added to a soda–lime glass gives a yellow colour. Selenites and selenates give a pale pink or pinkish yellow. Tellurium appears to give a pale pink tint. Nickel with a potash–lead glass gives a violet colour, and a brown colour with a soda–lime glass. Copper gives a peacock blue, which becomes green if the proportion of the copper oxide is increased.
An important class of materials is the chalcogenide glasses, which are selenides, containing thallium, arsenic, tellurium, and antimony in various proportions. They behave as amorphous semiconductors. Their photoconductive properties are also valuable.
Many different useful and decorative articles have been made from glass over the centuries. The history of glass as a creative art has been determined partly by technical advances in its manufacture and decoration and partly by the history of taste and fashion.
Glass was first made in the ancient world, but its earliest origins are obscure. Egyptian glass beads are the earliest glass objects known, dating from about 2500 bce. Later in Egyptian civilization, a type of glass characterized by feathery or zigzag patterns of coloured threads on the surface of the glass vessel was made.
The real origins of modern glass were in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period and, later, in ancient Rome. Alexandrian craftsmen perfected a technique known as mosaic glass in which slices of glass canes of different colours were cut crossways to make different decorative patterns. Millefiori glass, for which the canes are cut in such a way as to produce designs reminiscent of flower shapes, is a type of mosaic glass.
Molded glass was also developed early, glass being pressed into a mold to form a particular shape. Various types of decoration involving engraving and colour were also possible.
Glassblowing was probably developed during the 1st century bce by glassmakers in Syria. With this technique the possibilities of shaping glass into desired forms were endless. Glass could be blown into a mold or shaped completely free-form. The Romans perfected cameo glass, in which the design has been produced by cutting away a layer of glass to leave the design in relief.
The next major developments in the history of glass came during the 15th century in Venice. As early as the 13th century the Venetian island of Murano had become the centre for glassmaking. At first, Venetian glassmakers made use of many of the ancient and medieval decorative techniques to produce richly coloured and ornamental pieces having motifs characteristic of the Italian Renaissance.
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Nov 24, 2021 · A Brief Scientific History of Glass. Featuring ingots, shipwrecks and an international trade in colors, the material’s rich past is being traced using modern archaeology and materials science....
The meaning of GLASS is any of various amorphous materials formed from a melt by cooling to rigidity without crystallization. How to use glass in a sentence.
What is Glass? At its most basic level, glass is a solid material that is typically transparent or translucent and has a smooth, glossy surface. It is made by heating a mixture of silica (or silicon dioxide), soda ash, and lime to a high temperature until it melts and then allowing it to cool and solidify.
5 min read. Find it helpful? Share With. Glass is one of the most versatile – and most misunderstood – materials used in the world. Glass can be used for everything from eyeglasses to bottles, windows to the ‘glassphalt’ you find on the road.
