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The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle, was coined by Marinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD.
2 days ago · Often described as a continent of superlatives, Antarctica is not only the world’s southernmost continent. It is also the world’s highest, driest, windiest, coldest, and iciest continent. Antarctica is about 5.5 million square miles (14.2 million square km) in size, and thick ice covers about 98 percent of the land.
- Overview
- History of Antarctica
- Early geographic discoveries
- The “heroic era” of exploration
Many nations were involved in the discovery and early exploration of Antarctica. About 650 ce, however, long before European geographers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were to conjecture about Terra Australis Incognita, a mythical land to the far south, Rarotongan oral tradition tells of Ui-te-Rangiora, who sailed south of Aotearoa (New Zealand) to a frozen region. Tamarereti, a Polynesian explorer, also saw the icy south, according to oral tradition.
European explorers first approached Antarctica in 1520, when Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan rounded South America during his journey to circumnavigate the world. In the 18th century, British naval officer James Cook and others explored the sub-Antarctic region; Cook circumnavigated the globe in high southern latitudes between 1772 and 1775, proving that Terra Australis, if it existed at all, lay somewhere beyond the ice packs that he discovered between about 60° and 70° S. Who first saw the continent is controversial. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, a Baltic German officer in the Imperial Russian Navy; Edward Bransfield, an officer in the Royal Navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealing captain, all may have sighted Antarctica in 1820. Bellingshausen sighted a landlike mass of ice, possibly the shelf edge of continental ice, on January 27; Bransfield caught sight of land on January 30 that the British later considered to be a mainland part of the Antarctic Peninsula; and on November 18 Palmer unequivocally saw the mainland-peninsula side of Orleans Strait.
Many nations were involved in the discovery and early exploration of Antarctica. About 650 ce, however, long before European geographers of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were to conjecture about Terra Australis Incognita, a mythical land to the far south, Rarotongan oral tradition tells of Ui-te-Rangiora, who sailed south of Aotearoa (New Zealand) to a frozen region. Tamarereti, a Polynesian explorer, also saw the icy south, according to oral tradition.
European explorers first approached Antarctica in 1520, when Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan rounded South America during his journey to circumnavigate the world. In the 18th century, British naval officer James Cook and others explored the sub-Antarctic region; Cook circumnavigated the globe in high southern latitudes between 1772 and 1775, proving that Terra Australis, if it existed at all, lay somewhere beyond the ice packs that he discovered between about 60° and 70° S. Who first saw the continent is controversial. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, a Baltic German officer in the Imperial Russian Navy; Edward Bransfield, an officer in the Royal Navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealing captain, all may have sighted Antarctica in 1820. Bellingshausen sighted a landlike mass of ice, possibly the shelf edge of continental ice, on January 27; Bransfield caught sight of land on January 30 that the British later considered to be a mainland part of the Antarctic Peninsula; and on November 18 Palmer unequivocally saw the mainland-peninsula side of Orleans Strait.
Europeans started exploring Earth’s far southern reaches in the late 18th century for two main reasons: commercial gain and charting cartographic and magnetic contours. While sealers charted some island and sea routes in the sub-Antarctic, they kept this information secret so as to not reveal their hunting locations. Early sealers principally hailed from Britain and the United States, but, by the mid-19th century, South Africans, Australians, New Zealanders, and Frenchmen had joined them. These activities led to near extinction of the southern fur seal.
The charting of Earth’s magnetic field, with its simplifications for navigation, was another major incentive for these expeditions. Together with nationalism, geomagnetic surveying was the main motivation behind, for example, the 1839–43 British expedition led by British explorer James Clark Ross, which discovered the Ross Sea, the Ross Ice Barrier (now called the Ross Ice Shelf), and the Victoria Land coast. Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d’Urville’s French expedition of 1837–40 discovered Adélie Land and later claimed it for France. Charles Wilkes’s U.S. naval expedition of 1838–42 explored a large section of the East Antarctic coast.
During the first two decades of the 20th century, commonly called the “heroic era” of Antarctic exploration, great advances were made in not only geographic but also scientific knowledge of the continent. At the turn of the century, expeditions scrambled to explore Antarctica. They proved the feasibility of Antarctic overwintering and introduced new technologies. The Belgian ship Belgica, under command of Adrien de Gerlache, became the first vessel to winter in Antarctic waters when, from March 1898 to March 1899, it was trapped and drifted in pack ice of the Bellingshausen Sea. A scientific party under Norwegian explorer Carsten E. Borchgrevink spent the next winter camped at Cape Adare for the first planned overwintering on the continent.
The British National Antarctic Expedition (1901–04), led by British naval officer and explorer Robert Falcon Scott on board the Discovery, set a new record for reaching the farthest point south when Scott, together with Anglo-Irish explorer Ernest H. Shackleton and English explorer Edward A. Wilson, reached 82°17′ S on the Ross Ice Shelf on December 30, 1902. Scott also went aloft in a tethered balloon for aerial reconnaissance, and Shackleton first used motorized transport at Cape Royds, Ross Island, during the Nimrod expedition (1907–09). Other early heroic era expeditions were launched from France, Germany, and Sweden. Some were privately funded, and some were state funded. Most involved the nationals of several countries. The latter part of the heroic age centred on the race for the South Pole and other Antarctic firsts.
The period to c. 1900 was dominated by the exploration of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic seas. The early 20th century, the “heroic era” of Antarctic exploration, produced expeditions deep into the interior by Robert Falcon Scott and later Ernest Shackleton. The South Pole was reached by Roald Amundsen in December 1911 and by Scott in January ...
Throughout its history, Antarctica has seen a wide variety of plant life. In the Cretaceous, it was dominated by a fern-conifer ecosystem, which changed into a temperate rainforest by the end of that period. During the colder Neogene (17–2.5 Ma), a tundra ecosystem replaced the rainforests.
- 14,200,000 km², 5,500,000 sq mi
- <0.01/km², <0.03/sq mi
- 1,000 to 5,000 (seasonal)
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Learn about the history, geography, climate, and wildlife of Antarctica, the only continent with no permanent human population. Explore the physical features, glaciers, mountains, islands, and oceans of this unique and cold region. Discover how Antarctica influences Earth's heat balance and climate change.
Jan 24, 2020 · Learn how Antarctica was officially discovered 200 years ago and how it has been a hub of scientific discovery, international diplomacy and environmental change ever since. Explore the history, geology and climate of the world's coldest, most forbidding and most peaceful continent.
