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Towards a translation turn in the EU. The EUs translation practices and ideologies are at odds with its goals to respect, protect. ’. and foster multilingualism across the bloc. As argued elsewhere (Leal, 2013, 2016, 2020, 2021), the EUs conicted stance towards translation and language in general can be con-. ’ fl.
- Alice Leal
- 2021
Summary. The Euro-Englishes refers to the remarkable increase in English use that has been occurring in Europe since the end of World War II. Braj B. Kachru originally addressed the changing profile of the world's users and uses of English as a result of the language's global spread.
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PDF | In this review article I discuss some of the common controversies surrounding the idea of Euro-English by weighing out the most frequently upheld... | Find, read and cite all the research ...
- 2.11. Items in a series. In a list of two items, these are separated by ‘and’ or ‘or’:
- 2.12. Linked clauses. Use a comma to separate two clauses linked by a conjunction such as ‘but’, ‘yet’, ‘while’ or ‘so’ to form a single sentence:
- 2.14. Commas in relative clauses. Commas are used to make an important distinction between two types of relative construction, often known as ‘defining’ and ‘non-defining’ relative clauses. Compare the following sentences:
- 2.15. Apposition. Commas are not placed around restrictive appositive terms, but are used to set off non-restrictive ones.
- 2.18. Long (or ‘em’) dashes can be used as bullet points in lists (see 11).
- 2.19. Round brackets. Also known as parentheses, round brackets are used much like commas in 2.13 above, except that the text they contain has a lower emphasis. They are often used to expand on or explain the preceding item in the text:
- 2.24. Question marks are not used in indirect speech:
- 2.25. Do not use a question mark after a request or instruction disguised as a question out of courtesy:
- 2.36. So-called. Take care when using ‘so-called’ because it is ambiguous in English: very often it has negative connotations, suggesting that the writer regards the term in question with anything ranging from mild disapproval to downright contempt. Use ‘so-called’ only where the intended meaning is indeed negative and to distance yourself from the term to which you are referring:
- 3.6. Digraphs. Keep the digraph in aetiology, caesium, oenology, oestrogen, etc. (etiology etc. are US usage), but note that a number of such words
- 3.15. Tricky plurals. Follow the list below.
- Interference effects
- 3.16. Confusion between English words. Look out for errors involving the pairs below.
- 3.18. General. Compounds may be written as two or more separate words, with hyphen(s), or as a single word. There is a tendency for compounds to develop into single words when they come to be used more frequently: data base, data-base, database. As a general rule, the form used on the Oxford Dictionaries Premium website or on the Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries website should be followed (e.g. end user, by-product, database, e-learning).
- 3.19. In modifiers consisting of an adverb and participle or an adverb and adjective, there is no hyphen when the adverb ends in -ly:
- 3.20. An adjective formed out of a noun and a participle should be hyphenated:
- 3.23. Prefixes are usually hyphenated in recent or ad hoc coinages:
- 3.24. Phrasal verbs. Noun forms of phrasal verbs (a verb combined with a particle, usually an adverb or preposition) are often hyphenated or written as single words. As a general rule, the form used on the Oxford Dictionaries Premium website or on the Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries website should be followed (e.g. handout, takeover, comeback, backup but follow-up, run-up, spin-off).
- 3.25. Avoiding double consonants and vowels.
- 3.28. Coordination of compounds. Hyphenated compounds may be coordinated as follows:
- 3.29. Related or contrasting pairs. Either ‘en’ dashes or hyphens are used to join related or contrasting pairs (see also 2.17 and 2.18 on dashes):
- 4.4. Acronyms/initialisms. The existence of an acronym or initialism does not mean that initial capitals must be used when the corresponding expression is written out in full:
- 4.5. Titles of organisations, institutions, directorates, units, sections, office holders, committees, delegations, etc. Use initial capitals on all nouns and adjectives when writing out titles in full:
- 4.6. Full titles of international agreements, conferences, conventions, etc. Nouns and adjectives have an initial capital when using the full title:
- 4.15. Party denominations and organisations. Use capitals for their names:
- 4.16. State or state? Generally use lower case, e.g.:
- 4.18. Proprietary names and generic terms. Proprietary names (or trade names) are normally capitalised, e.g.:
- 4.21. Derivations from proper nouns. Not all adjectives derived from proper nouns take a capital:
- 4.22. Hyphenated constructions. In titles containing a hyphenated compound, it is acceptable to capitalise either only the first element (unless the second element is a proper noun) or both elements:
- 4.23. All capitals. Using all capitals for words in running text has the effect of emphasising them, often excessively so, so should generally be avoided. Writing entire passages in block capitals has a similar over-emphatic ‘telegram’ effect. Use bolding or other devices instead to convey emphasis.
- 4.24. Initial capitals in quotations. Start with a capital in running text only if the quotation is a complete sentence in itself:
- 5.8. If a body, for example an international organisation, has an official name in English, always use that:
- 5.10. Elsewhere, if a body’s name is essentially a description of what it does, for example the name of a ministry, you should translate it, preferably with a commonly accepted or previously used term (see, for example, EU Whoiswho). The following solutions are all possible, depending on the type of document and/or the importance of the body in the document:
- 5.12. Familiar foreign names. If a body’s original-language name is familiar to the intended readership, or the body uses it in its own English texts, use that rather than a translation:
- 5.14. Back-transliteration of names. Where a name written in a non-Latin alphabet is obviously a rendering of a word or phrase normally written in the Latin alphabet, e.g. an English expression, use that rather than a transliteration:
- 5.15. Names of ships, aircraft and other vehicles are written in italics:
- 5.19. Scandinavian/Nordic. When referring to the countries of the Nordic Council, i.e. Denmark (including the Faeroes and Greenland), Finland (including Åland), Iceland, Norway and Sweden, use ‘Nordic’ rather than ‘Scandinavian’ in terms such as ‘Nordic countries’ or ‘Nordic cooperation’.
- 5.20. Names of regions. Regional names fall into three types. ♦ Administrative units. Anglicise only those names with translations in the Country Compendium. Other names should be left in the native spelling, without quotation marks.
- 5.26. Islands. Islands are often administrative units in their own right, so leave in original spelling, except Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, the Canary Islands, the Azores and Greek islands with accepted English spellings, such as Crete, Corfu, Lesbos.
- 5.31. Compass points. Adjectival forms are not capitalised unless they form part of a proper name, e.g. an administrative or political unit or a distinct regional entity. Hence southern Africa, northern France, eastern Europe but South Africa, Northern Ireland, East Indies. Noun forms are capitalised when they refer to geopolitical concepts (the West, the East) or geographical concepts (the North of England, the South of France), but not otherwise (the sun rises in the east and sets in the west). Compass bearings are abbreviated without a point (54° E).
- 6.20. Systems of chronology. The letters AD come (AD 2000), whereas BC follows it (347 BC).
- Acronyms and initialisms
- Contractions and truncations
- 7.3. Writing acronyms.
- 7.4. Writing initialisms.
- 7.6. Indefinite article. Apply the rule ‘a before a consonant, an before a vowel’ as if the abbreviation following the article were being spoken:
- but
- 7.10. Use of e.g. and i.e. Like all Latin abbreviations (see 9.3), these should be written in roman type:
- 7.11. Specific recommendations. Do not use the abbreviation viz., but use namely instead. The abbreviation cf., however, is acceptable and need not be changed to see.
- 7.14. Foreign-language conventions. Remember that languages may have different conventions as regards their use of mathematical symbols, especially those for multiplication, division, and subtraction.
- 7.15. Multiplication sign. Change a point or a raised dot used as a multiplication sign to × or *, e.g. 2.6 · 1018 becomes 2.6 × 1018 or 2.6 * 1018. A point used in an algebraic expression can be omitted, e.g. 2·A = 2·π·r2 can be written 2A = 2πr2.
- 8.5. The euro. Like any other currency name in English, the word ‘euro’ is written in lower case with no initial capital. The plural of ‘euro’ is ‘euro’ (without ‘s’). The invariable plural form ‘cent’ is also preferred and is compulsory in legal acts:
- Annex 4 – Transliteration Table for Cyrillic. (Note that the ‘soft sign’ and
- 9.6. Arabic. There are many different transliteration systems, but an internet search will normally reveal the most commonly used English spelling convention. When translating, do not always rely on the form used in the source text. For example, French, German or Dutch writers may use j where y is needed in English or French (e.g. DE: Scheich Jamani = EN: Sheikh Yamani). Note spellings of Maghreb and Mashreq.
- 9.7. Chinese. The pinyin romanisation system introduced by the People’s Republic in the 1950s has now become the internationally accepted standard. Important new spellings to note are:
- 10.3. Pronominal adverbs are generally used to replace a preposition + pronoun phrase. For example:
- 10.4. The causal adverbs hence and thus, though also formal, are widely used. Both hence and thus are used to link two phrases and indicate that the second phrase is a result or consequence of the first.
- 10.5. Only. The positioning of the adverb only is flexible in spoken English and in informal texts, although ambiguities can arise if it is separated from the word or phrase that it modifies.
- 10.6. In the future or in future. Use in the future to mean ‘at an unspecified later time’ and in future to mean ‘from now on’:
- 10.7. Collective nouns take the singular when the emphasis is on the whole entity:
- 10.11. Countries and organisations with a plural name take the singular:
- 10.16. Neither ... nor ... When using neither ... nor ... as a determiner to link two singular nouns, use a singular verb:
- 10.17. None and one. The word none may take either a singular or a plural verb when it refers to a plural countable noun:
- 10.18. Multiple subject. Use a singular verb when a multiple subject clearly forms a whole:
- 10.21. Sequence of tenses. Unlike in some other languages, minutes and the like in English are written as reported speech, with the past tense replacing the present and the other tenses shifting accordingly. For example:
- 10.27. Positive imperative. To impose an obligation or a requirement, EU legislation uses shall.
- 10.29. Positive permission. To give permission to do something, EU legislation uses may:
- 10.30. Negative permission. To give permission not to do something, EU legislation uses need not:
- 10.31. Declarative provisions. EU legislation uses the simple present for definitions and where the provision constitutes direct implementation (possibly adding ‘hereby’, as in the examples below):
- 10.34. Instructions in annexes. Use a simple imperative rather than commands:
- 10.35. A split infinitive is where one or more adverbs etc. are inserted between ‘to’ and the verb, as in ‘to boldly go where no one has gone before’. It is not grammatically wrong to do this, despite what many people think. Nevertheless, a sentence will usually read better if the adverb is placed before or after the infinitive:
- 10.36. Where the -ing form of a verb is used with a subject of its own, that subject (‘the printer’ in the examples below) can be in the object case1 or in the possessive (genitive):
- 10.37. The structures following ‘both ... and ...’ or ‘either ... or ...’ should balance and mirror each other.
- 10.38. Take care when using ‘not only ... but also ...’ The purpose of ‘not only ... but also’ in English is to emphasise new or possibly surprising information after ‘but also’. That being the case, the first part (‘not only’) should introduce something that is already known or to be expected in the context:
- 11.1. Use automatic numbering wherever possible, since it is much easier to amend a list if the numbers are automatically adjusted. Note, however, that the automatic numbering function should not be used for lists of lettered points that include non-English characters or are based on another alphabet, e.g. when translating national legislation (see 23.15).
- 11.3. Where each item completes
- 11.4. If all items are complete statements without a grammatical link to the introductory phrase, proceed as follows:
- 11.5. If any one item consists of several complete sentences, announce the list with a main sentence and continue as indicated below.
- 13.5. Citations. Put titles of free-standing publications (books, periodicals, newspapers, etc.) in italics but cite titles of chapters and articles within such publications in single quotation marks (see also 4.11). Use the English titles of publications where an official English version exists but do not translate titles of works that have appeared only in a foreign language.
- 13.6. Citing EU documents. Italicise the titles of white and green papers. Write White Paper or Green Paper with initial capitals only if it forms part of the title.
- 14.1. Translating incoming letters. If a letter is in an editable electronic format, simply overtype the original, though you need not translate irrelevant detail. However, if the letter cannot be overtyped, use a simple layout such as follows:
- Letter 1
- Letter 2
- 15. Inclusive language
- 15.1. Gender-neutral language. Much existing EU legislation is not gender-neutral and the masculine pronouns ‘he’ etc. are used generically to include all genders. However, gender-neutral language is nowadays preferred wherever possible.
- 15.2. Language used to refer to people with disabilities. Person-first language, which emphasises the person rather than the disability (e.g. ʻpeople/persons with disabilitiesʼ), is generally preferred, although other forms are also acceptable (e.g. ʻdisabled people/personsʼ).
- 16.1. Biological sciences. As the binomial system for classifying living organisms is used in all languages, it is normally sufficient to reproduce the original terms. Note that the initial letter of the scientific name is capitalised, while species epithets are always written in lower case, even if derived from proper names (e.g. Martes americana, Pusa sibirica). The names of genera and species are always italicised. Practice varies for the names of higher taxonomic ranks, but the trend is towards italicising them too:
- 16.14. Further information. Lots more, especially on chemistry, can be found via the
- 17.8. Acquis. The acquis (note the italics) is the body of EU law in the broad sense, comprising:
- 18.15. Treaty of Lisbon – Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community. Signed in Lisbon on 13 December 2007, it came into force on 1 December 2009. It amended the EU’s two core treaties: the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community. The latter was renamed the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. The principal changes include the following:
- 19.18. Opening text. The preambles to regulations, directives, and decisions start with a line in capitals identifying the institution and ending with a comma:
- 19.22. Enacting formula. Preambles close with a line in capitals continuing the enacting formula, ending with a colon:
- 20.2. Titles of Members. The word Commissioner should not be used in legal acts but is acceptable in other less formal, journalistic-type texts, such as press releases and especially headlines (where the more formal designations sound stilted). Mr Z, Commission Member, can also be used in less formal texts. The established forms are:
- 20.15. Do not confuse the Council with the following institutions:
- Translating documents from outside the EU institutions:
- 20.34. Make clear the distinctions between the Court of Justice of the European Union in Luxembourg, the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg and the International Court of Justice in The Hague.
- 20.37. The Economic and Social Committee is governed by Articles 300 to 304 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. On 17 July 2002 it decided to add the word ‘European’ to its title. Although this does not appear in the Treaty, it is appropriate to use it.
- 20.38. A Secretary-General heads the Secretariat-General. Preparatory work for the plenary sessions in Brussels is carried out by sections devoted to individual policy areas.
- 20.43. European Investment Fund. The European Investment Fund (EIF) is an institution whose main objective is to support the creation, growth and development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). It provides risk capital and guarantee instruments, using either its own funds or those available under mandates from the EIB or the European Union.
- 20.44. There are four interinstitutional bodies serving the interests of the EU institutions and agencies:
- Short form
- 22.4. Adoption and structure. The principles underlying the budget and the rules that govern it are contained in the Financial Regulation (Regulation (EU, Euratom) No 966/2012) and subsequent implementing regulations. The procedure for drawing up and approving the budget is laid down in Article 314 TFEU, with detailed arrangements set out in Part One, Title III of the Regulation.
- 23.12. Political parties. Where possible and meaningful, always translate the names of political parties, as this may be important to the reader, but add the national abbreviation in brackets and use this in the rest of the document:
- Annex 1 International organisations whose names do not follow our standard spelling rules
- IATE – Interactive
- Annex 4 Transliteration table for Cyrillic
- 78 щщщ) EN (aaa) (bbb) (ccc) (ddd) (eee) (fff) (ggg) (hhh)
- Annex 7 Forms of address
The committee identified two errors in the document: the date of implementation and the regulation number. In a list of three or more items, a comma is used to separate them, except for the final two, which are separated by ‘and’ or ‘or’: Robin mowed the lawn, Sam did the cooking and Kim lazed around. The committee considered sugar, beef and milk p...
The committee on commas agreed a final text, but the issue of semicolons was not considered. If the subject of the second clause is omitted, or if the conjunction is ‘and’, ‘or’ or ‘but’, the comma is not obligatory: The committee on commas agreed a final text but did not consider the issue of semicolons. The committee on commas agreed a final text...
The auditors were not able to count the cows which were on the mountain pasture at the time of the audit. The auditors were not able to count the cows, which were on the mountain pasture at the time of the audit. In the first example – without a comma – the relative clause (which were on the mountain ...) tells us which cows we are talking about. T...
In the following sentence, the appositive term (in bold) is restrictive because it identifies the person in question from among a number of colleagues: My colleague Ursula gave a speech at the conference. In the following sentence, the appositive term (in bold) is non-restrictive because it merely provides additional information about the person in...
In Microsoft Word, the keyboard shortcut for the ‘em’ dash is Alt + Ctrl + - (on the numeric keypad).
ARZOD (an employment service) is based in Ruritania. Never put a comma before the opening bracket. If a whole sentence is in brackets, the full stop must be placed before the closing bracket. Do not forget the full stop at the end of the preceding sentence as well. A second set of round brackets (not square brackets) can be used to set off text tha...
We should ask ourselves how this policy will affect EU trade.
Would you please sign and return the attached form.
These are challenges that so-called primitive peoples often manage better than us. The so-called science of poll-taking is not a science at all but mere necromancy. Some say the so-called European Parliament is a travesty of democracy ... Do not place the word or phrase qualified by ‘so-called’ in quotation marks. Foreign-language expressions such ...
(e.g. medieval and fetus) are now normally spelled without the digraph in Irish/British English. Foetus is still common in Ireland and the United Kingdom in non-technical use.
abscissa abscissae addendum addenda appendix bacterium bureau consortium corrigendum criterion curriculum embargo focus formula forum genus index maximum medium memorandum minimum moratorium papyrus phenomenon plus premium referendum spectrum symposium vortex
appendices (books), appendixes (anatomy) bacteria bureaux consortia corrigenda criteria curricula embargoes foci (mathematics, science) focuses (other contexts) formulas (politics) formulae (science) forums (fora only in relation to ancient Rome) genera indexes (books), indices (science, economics) maxima (mathematics, science) maximums (other cont...
dependent (adj. or noun) license (verb) practise (verb) principal (adj. or noun) stationary (adj.) dependant (noun only) licence (noun) practice (noun) principle (noun) stationery (noun) Note also: all together (in a body), altogether (entirely); premises (both buildings and propositions), premisses (propositions only); discreet (careful and circum...
Use hyphens sparingly but to good purpose: in the phrase crude oil production statistics a hyphen (crude-oil) can tell the reader that ‘crude’ applies to the oil rather than the statistics. Failure to insert a hyphen when it is necessary could lead to confusion or even change the meaning of the sentence: a little-used car / a little used car gove...
an occupationally exposed worker; a beautifully phrased sentence; a steeply sloping roof; an impossibly complex issue; a pleasantly cool breeze This applies irrespective of the form used on the Oxford Dictionaries Premium website or on the Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries website: fully automatic; fully grown; fully fashioned; fully fledged Nor is the...
drug-related crime, crime-fighting unit; oil-bearing rock
anti-smoking campaign, co-sponsor, ex-army, non-resident, non-flammable, pre-school, quasi-autonomous If they are of Latin or Greek origin, however, they tend to drop the hyphen as they become established: antibody, cooperation, subcommittee, subparagraph Others are more resistant to losing the hyphen: co-determination, end-phase, all-embracing, al...
The verb forms are always written as separate words: hand out, take over, come back, back up, follow up, run up, spin off. Participle forms of phrasal verbs are generally hyphenated when used attributively as adjectives: cooling-off period, warming-up exercise, knocked-down prices, worn-out shoes.
Hyphens are often used to avoid juxtaposing two consonants or two vowels: anti-intellectual, co-education, part-time, re-election, pre-empt re-entry, re-examine, However, the hyphen is often omitted, especially in commonly used words: bookkeeping, cooperation, coordinate, macroeconomic, microeconomic, radioactive
gamma- and beta-emitters, acid- and heat-resistant, hot- and cold-rolled products Where compounds are not hyphenated (closed compounds), they should not be coordinated but written out in full: macrostructural and microstructural changes, minicomputers and microcomputers, prenatal and postnatal effects, agricultural inputs and outputs not macro- and...
the Brussels–Paris route / the Brussels-Paris route a current–voltage graph / a current-voltage graph the height–depth ratio / the height-depth ratio
non-governmental organisation (NGO) but European Central Bank (ECB) (as this is the official name of the institution)
Publications and Dissemination Directorate Business Development and Support Unit Editorial Partnerships Section Future Policies Working Group President of the Council Director-General for Agriculture Council of Europe European Development Fund Markets in Crop Products Directorate President of the French Republic Vice-Chair of the Committee on Inter...
International Coffee Agreement Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade but use lower case when referring back to the agreement, the conference, etc.
Socialist Group, Fianna Fáil Party but liberal, socialist, etc. otherwise. For political groups in the European Parliament, see the European Parliament website.
state-owned reasons of state nation states the Arab states except in an abstract or legal sense, e.g.: the separation of Church and State and in the following instances, which are rooted in the Treaties: Member States (when referring to EU Member States) State aid Heads of State or Government (when referring to the heads of state or government of a...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
The following is based on guidelines issued by the European Commission’s Protocol Service. * One’s own Ambassador is usually not referred to as ‘Excellency’. Notes: letter starting with ‘(Dear) Sir/Madam/Excellency etc.’ should finish with ‘yours faithfully’. letter starting with ‘Dear’ and including the name of the recipient should finish with ‘yo...
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1 The term “translation”: Concept, definitions and usage 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Translation, translating and translation studies 2 1.2 Preliminary definition: Basic concept 3 1.3 Existing definitions of translation 11 1.4 In search of a definition 12 1.5 Equivalence and the definition of translation 16 1.6 Types of translation ...
