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- DictionaryNum·ber the·o·ry/ˈnəmbər ˌTHēərē/
noun
- 1. the branch of mathematics that deals with the properties and relationships of numbers, especially the positive integers.
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Number theory (or arithmetic or higher arithmetic in older usage) is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and arithmetic functions. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) said, "Mathematics is the queen of the sciences—and number theory is the queen of mathematics." [1]
- Overview
- From prehistory through Classical Greece
- Pythagoras
number theory, branch of mathematics concerned with properties of the positive integers (1, 2, 3, …). Sometimes called “higher arithmetic,” it is among the oldest and most natural of mathematical pursuits.
Number theory has always fascinated amateurs as well as professional mathematicians. In contrast to other branches of mathematics, many of the problems and theorems of number theory can be understood by laypersons, although solutions to the problems and proofs of the theorems often require a sophisticated mathematical background.
Until the mid-20th century, number theory was considered the purest branch of mathematics, with no direct applications to the real world. The advent of digital computers and digital communications revealed that number theory could provide unexpected answers to real-world problems. At the same time, improvements in computer technology enabled number theorists to make remarkable advances in factoring large numbers, determining primes, testing conjectures, and solving numerical problems once considered out of reach.
Modern number theory is a broad subject that is classified into subheadings such as elementary number theory, algebraic number theory, analytic number theory, geometric number theory, and probabilistic number theory. These categories reflect the methods used to address problems concerning the integers.
Britannica Quiz
Numbers and Mathematics
The ability to count dates back to prehistoric times. This is evident from archaeological artifacts, such as a 10,000-year-old bone from the Congo region of Africa with tally marks scratched upon it—signs of an unknown ancestor counting something. Very near the dawn of civilization, people had grasped the idea of “multiplicity” and thereby had taken the first steps toward a study of numbers.
It is certain that an understanding of numbers existed in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and India, for tablets, papyri, and temple carvings from these early cultures have survived. A Babylonian tablet known as Plimpton 322 (c. 1700 bce) is a case in point. In modern notation, it displays number triples x, y, and z with the property that x2 + y2 = z2. One such triple is 2,291, 2,700, and 3,541, where 2,2912 + 2,7002 = 3,5412. This certainly reveals a degree of number theoretic sophistication in ancient Babylon.
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According to tradition, Pythagoras (c. 580–500 bce) worked in southern Italy amid devoted followers. His philosophy enshrined number as the unifying concept necessary for understanding everything from planetary motion to musical harmony. Given this viewpoint, it is not surprising that the Pythagoreans attributed quasi-rational properties to certain numbers.
For instance, they attached significance to perfect numbers—i.e., those that equal the sum of their proper divisors. Examples are 6 (whose proper divisors 1, 2, and 3 sum to 6) and 28 (1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14). The Greek philosopher Nicomachus of Gerasa (flourished c. 100 ce), writing centuries after Pythagoras but clearly in his philosophical debt, stated that perfect numbers represented “virtues, wealth, moderation, propriety, and beauty.” (Some modern writers label such nonsense numerical theology.)
2 days ago · Number theory is the study of properties of the integers. Because of the fundamental nature of the integers in mathematics, and the fundamental nature of mathematics in science, the famous mathematician and physicist Gauss wrote:
3 days ago · Number theory is a vast and fascinating field of mathematics, sometimes called "higher arithmetic," consisting of the study of the properties of whole numbers. Primes and prime factorization are especially important in number theory, as are a number of functions such as the divisor function, Riemann zeta function, and totient function.
Number theory, also known as 'higher arithmetic', is one of the oldest branches of mathematics and is used to study the properties of positive integers. It helps to study the relationship between different types of numbers such as prime numbers, rational numbers, and algebraic integers.
So what is "arithmetic," or number theory? Simply stated, number theory is concerned with questions about and properties of the integers \[\dots, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, \dots\nonumber \] and closely-related numbers.
Nov 11, 2023 · Number theory is the branch of mathematics that studies integers, which are all the whole numbers on either side of the number line. Number theory looks at specific properties of integers and seeks patterns in the ways different types of numbers are distributed or related to each other.
